![]() ![]() ![]() In turn, acidification triggers RPE to pump out water from the SRS and reduces the thickness of the external limiting membrane to retinal pigment epithelium (ELM-RPE) 21, 22, 23. This increased metabolism produces large amounts of waste water and CO 2 as byproducts and acidifies the SRS 19, 20. In the dark, mitochondria activity is increased to maintain the photoreceptor dark current 16, 17, 18. For example, light–dark changes in the subretinal space (SRS) volume surrounding rod cells in vivo, observed by microelectrodes/extracellular tracer, diffusion MRI and electrophysiological recordings 10, 11, 12, 13, can be also be detected using commercially available OCT 3, 14, 15. In addition to the more common measurements of retina laminae structure and thickness used in these settings, functional changes during light stimulation have also been noted 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is a powerful imaging tool widely used both in eye clinics and in vision research laboratories 1, 2. These two distinct OCT biomarkers could be useful indices for non-invasively evaluating photoreceptor mitochondrial metabolic activity. Our results indicate that mitochondrial respiration underlies changes in HB magnitude upstream of the pH-sensitive ELM-RPE thickness response. Humans, analyzed from published data captured with a different protocol, showed a similar light–dark change pattern in HB magnitude as in the mice. For mice strains with relatively lower (C57BL/6J) or higher (129S6/ev) rod mitochondrial efficacy, light-induced changes in HB magnitude and ELM-RPE thickness were correlated. Mitochondrial stimulation with 2,4-dinitrophenol reduced both HB magnitude and ELM-RPE thickness in parallel, and also reduced F-actin expression in the same retinal region, but without altering ERG responses. Acetazolamide, which acidifies the subretinal space, had no significant impact on HB magnitude but produced ELM-RPE thinning. Here, we test the hypothesis that these two OCT biomarkers are linked to metabolic activity of the retina. In mice, HB magnitude and the external limiting membrane-retinal pigment epithelium (ELM-RPE) thickness appear to be dependent on light exposure, which is known to alter photoreceptor mitochondria respiration. It will be particularly helpful for those focusing on energy governance and EU foreign policy.Human and animal retinal optical coherence tomography (OCT) images show a hyporeflective band (HB) between the photoreceptor tip and retinal pigment epithelium layers whose mechanisms are unclear. Timely and inquisitive, this is a critical read for European studies and international relations scholars. Placing the challenges in the EU–Russia relationship into their historical context, the book demonstrates that the quest for coherence is not a marginal normative claim, but practically incorporated into the EU’s foreign policy. Thaler includes a thorough overview of how the EU’s institutional architecture and successive reforms have been designed to improve external coherence, and highlights elements that impede this aim. Providing new avenues to understanding the meaning of coherence, the book explores why this frequently used term is undefined and why it became a guiding principle in EU foreign policy. ![]() Philipp Thaler utilises key cases in external energy and human rights policies to highlight the on-going difficulties in creating a coherent position, despite the EU’s formally stated objective to achieve this. Offering a comprehensive and structured analysis of the reasons why the EU lacks external coherence towards Russia, this book presents important new insights to the topic beyond conventional institutionalist arguments. ![]()
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